TALMUD signifies—(1) "study of and instruction in anything (whether by any one else or by oneself)"; (2) "learning acquired"; (3) "style, system": as such it is synonymous with Mishnah in its fifth signification, vol. xvi. p. 503; (4) "theory," in contradistinction to "practice," —synonymous with Midrash in its fourth signification, vol. xvi. p. 285 ; (5) such interpretation of the Mosaic law as is apparent on the surface thereof and does not necessitate any further disquisition ; (6) Boroiilio, or the non-canonical Mishnah; (7) Gemara, i.e., the-oldest commentary on the canonical Mishnah ; (8) the texts of Mishnah and Gemara combined,—the meaning which is the one most commonly attached to the term Talmud. Although the word Talmud is not to be found in the Bible, there can be little doubt that it is a classical Hebrew term, as may be seen by the analogy of Tahànûn, "supplication," Tan-hüm, " consolation," &c.
Recensions of the Talmud.—The Talmud exists in two recensions,—the Palestinian, commonly, but by mistake, called Talmud Yerushalmi (see below), and the Babylonian, correctly called Talmud Babli. The Talmud Yerushalmi embodies the discussions on the MISHNAH (q.v.) of hundreds of doctors, living in Palestine, chiefly in Galilee, from the end of the 2d till about the middle of the 5th century, whilst the Babylonian Talmud embodies chiefly the discussions on the same Mishnah of hundreds of doctors living in various places in Babylonia, such as Neharde'a, Kaphri, Mahuza, Shekhansib, but notably at the two great academies of Sura and Pumbaditha, from about 190 to nearly the end of the 6th century. The doctors of both recensions, although they primarily discuss the correctness of the text and meaning of the Mishnah, and what should be the right legal decision according to it, do not confine themselves to this. They introduce, as occasion serves, not merely the whole of the oral tradition handed down to their time, and the necessary references to, and interpreta-tions of, the various laws to be found in the Pentateuch and the other sacred writings, but exhibit also, though only in a fragmentary manner, an almost complete cycle of the profane sciences as current orally and known to them by books composed by Jews and Gentiles. The doctors of both these recensions were and are called Amoraim (D*K'jto8), i.e., mere "discussers, speakers," because, unlike the Mishnic doctors, who were and are called Tannaim (D'!<?f!), i.e., " learners, teachers," they abstained from mak-ing new laws unless absolutely compelled by circumstances to do so. These Amoraim stand, on the whole, in the same relation to their Mishnic predecessors as counsel giving a legal opinion, or judges deciding legal cases, stand to the legislature which frames the laws. In these points the doctors of both recensions agree. There are, however, also points of considerable difference between the two Tal-muds. These are not merely geographical, and so neces-sarily linguistic, but also material. Whilst the discussions in the Palestinian Talmud are simple, brief, and to the point, those in the Babylonian Talmud are subtle, long-winded, and, although always logical, sometimes even far-fetched. But there is another difference. The Palestinian Talmud, besides containing legal and religious discussions, is a storehouse of history, geography, and archaeology, whilst the Babylonian Talmud, taking into consideration that it is treble the size of its fellow Talmud, contains less of these. On the other hand, it bestows more care upon the legal and religious points, and, being the later and the more studied of the two, it is also the more trustworthy.
System of the Talmud.—Most people imagine not only that the Talmuds are a pathless wilderness, without so much as grammatical rules in their respective languages, but that the laws laid down in them rest on mere tradition. In reality their languages have strictly grammatical rules (see below under Aids, &c), and their laws rest on a strictly logical system. The laws in both Talmuds are discussed and argued on philosophical rules, for which it is claimed that they have existed from time immemorial, and can be traced to the Pentateuch itself. These are—(1) the Seven Bules (nnD $nK>), put forth by Hillel (Tosephto Synhedrin, vii., last § ; Siphro, towards the end of the Introduction ; Aboth de-Rabbi Nathan, xxxvii.) but a great deal older than his time; (2) the Thirteen Bules (nilD mE>J> E>7t5>), put forth by B. Yishma'el (Introduction to Siphro), which can, how-ever, be traced in mice to the foregoing " Seven Bules " : both these are for the Haldkhah; and (3) there are also the Thirty-two Bules (nnD D»riE>1 D»B>7tJ>), put forth by R. Eli'ezer b. R. Yose Haggalili (vol i. of most editions of the Babylonian Talmud), which are for the Agadah. In addition, most of the points to which these rules apply are secured by early tradition. It is quite true that by idiosyn-crasy digressions are very frequent both in Talmud and Midrash; but in the Haldkhah the digression, however long, invariably ends in coming back to the original cause of the logical combination, whilst in the Agadah the digression either comes back to the place from which it started, or else will be found, on examination, to have been introduced for its own sake, and have served its own pur-pose. As the doctors of Talmud and Midrash are mostly introduced in dialogues, this is the only practical, if some-what uncommon, method.
Division of the Talmud.—The external division of both Talmuds is identical with the division, subdivision, and sub-subdivision of the Mishnah, although there is not always Gemara in the one when there is Gemara in the other. This, however, need not be further discussed here, as all on this head is minutely specified in MISHNAH (q.v.). Concerning the internal division into HalaTchah and Agadah, it ought to be said that the former is more largely represented in the Babylonian Talmud, whilst the latter is more largely and more interestingly given in the Palestinian Talmud. Whole collections of Midrashim now in our hands have constituted (if we may judge from the known to the unknown) part of the Palestinian Talmud, and seem to have chiefly belonged to those portions of it which have been gradually lost.
Purpose.—The Talmud, unlike the Mishnah, contains not only individual decisions, but everything that is necessary for arriving at legal and religious decisions of whatever description these may be, whilst, like the Mishnah, it is not itself a handbook of decisions. This is only in accordance with the nature and spirit of an oral law which delegates the decisions to the Talmudico-speculative capacities of the teachers of every age. Even several of the comparatively few instances in which the words ... '3 Kro^m ("and the decision is according to so and so ") occur in the Babylonian Talmud are alater addition. They belong to the Haldkhoth Gedoloth, and are consequently, at the earliest, of the 8th century, but are probably of even much later date.
Editors.—The editorship of the Palestinian Talmud is generally, after Maimonides, ascribed to Rabbi Yohanan (b. Napha). But this, if literally taken, is a gross mistake, as that teacher (ob. 279) died more than a hundred years before the latest Amora (c. 450) mentioned in that Talmud. A similar error is made with respect to the editor or editors of the Babylonian Talmud, whose names are given as Rab Asshi (see RAB) (ob. 427) and Rabina (ob. 550), and who lived still much earlier than the last teachers mentioned in that Talmud (8th century). But it ought to be remembered that when the ancients speak of editors of books of such a mixed character as the Mish-nah, the Zohar, both Talmuds, &c, they mean the person or persons who gave the first impulse to the collection or redaction of such books. In this sense, certainly, Babbi Yohanan was the editor of the Palestinian and Bab Asshi and Babina were the editors of the Babylonian Talmuds. For, whilst the first of the latter pair went more than once through the discussion of the whole Mishnah by the Amoraim from 190 to his time (c. 427), the latter supple-mented the collection down to his own time (550). As regards the Babylonian Talmud, the Amoraim were succeeded by a new order of men called Saboraim (pn ''K'I'QD), i-e., " opiners," who ventured only occasionally to revise and authenticate the sayings of their predecessors. The last of these Saboraim were Bab Tna (or Giza) and Bab Simona (c. 550-590). In any case neither the one Talmud nor the other was written down, slight private notes excepted (DHflD ni?3D), before the close of the 6th century, if then. The apparently insurmountable diffi-culty of keeping such vast masses of literature in the head is removed when one takes into consideration that both teacher and student had means of help to their memory fully corresponding to the vastness of the literature. In the first place, they had the numbers already occurring in the Mishnah (e.g., five must not separate the heave-offering on account of the benediction to be recited in connexion with the act; Terwnoth i. 1), &c. Secondly, they had names. Since to the sayings of the Talmud were generally attached the names of those who uttered them, saying and name became in the memory of the student identical. If somebody who had heard a certain saying from somebody, who in his turn had heard it from somebody else, was mentioned in the Talmud, all other sayings, however unlike these in nature, if they had only the same link of tradition, were recited on the same occasion: e.g., in the Palestinian Talmud, Megillah iv. 1, "says Rabbi Haggai, says Rabbi Shemuel b. Rab Yishak," &c.; T. B., Berakhoth, leaf 35, &c, "says Babbi Zerika, says Babbi Ammi, says Rabbi Yehoshua b. Levi," &c. Thirdly, other oral tradi-tions, which went by the order of the Pentateuch, received in the written Pentateuch vast aids to memory. Fourthly, the Mishnah (although itself not written down), by its divisions, subdivisions, and sub-subdivisions, became, in its turn, a mighty aid to memory. Fifthly, as regards the Babylonian Talmud, there are additional means of aiding memory in existence, for every now and then one meets with a Mnemosynon (Siman), which strings together the order of subjects (e.g., T. B., Beraklwth, 32a, last line). Both in MSS. and printed editions these Simanini are given in brackets. Rapoport and his followers would have us believe that these mnemonic phrases are late inventions, but they have as yet failed to make good their assertions. See T. B., Shabbath 104a, and T. B., 'Erubin, 546, where these Simanim are positively mentioned early in the 4th century ; cf. Rashi in loco.
Value.—The value of the Talmuds may be estimated by the fact that they contain the Mishnah in various recensions and a large portion of the contents of Midrashic collections, and in addition comprise a vast amount of Sopheric literature not to be found in the canonical Mishnah and Agadic matter not to be found in the known Midrashim, and have thousands of notices on secular knowledge of all kinds. Here, however, the reader ought to be again re-minded that, whilst the Babylonian Talmud, the one of much larger extent, contains a great deal more Judaso-religious matter, the Palestinian Talmud—of much smaller extent—is of much greater value for the historian, the geographer, the numismatist, and other students.
Vicissitudes of the Talmud.—Whilst the Babylonian Talmud commanded the attention of a hostile world, and was proscribed, mutilated, and condemned, and finally delivered over to the flames by popes and. kings, the Palestinian Talmud suffered still more from one single enemy—neglect. Thousands of copies of the former recension were destroyed in the course of time, but, this Talmud being studied in all parts of the world, the few copies surviving became the means of an endless supply. Not so as regards the Palestinian Talmud, which found no students, or but few, after the closing (c. 450) of the Jewish academies in Palestine ; and we have even to thank the enemies of traditional Judaism, the Karaites, who used it in controversy with their Babbanite opponents, for the preservation of some copies of it. By degrees the neglect of the book became so great that whole chapters of treatises, whole treatises of orders, and almost two whole orders themselves, disappeared, and are lost to this day.
Aids to the Study of the Talmuds.—(a) Lexicons.—The first rank is occupied by lexicons for both Talmuds and Midrashim, and of these that by R. Nathan b. Yehiel of Rome, compiled in the 11th and 12th centuries, claims the first place. All other lexicons, from Elias Levita, Philip Aquinas, Johannes Buxtorf, &c., down to Levy and Jastrow, are more or less based upon this grand work called 'Arukh. (i) Grammars.—A slight attempt at compiling a grammar, and this only for the Babylonian Talmud, was made by the late learned S. D. Luzzatto. It exists in Italian (Padua, 1865). German by Kriiger (Breslau, 1873), English by Goldammer (New York, 1876), and Hebrew by Lerner (St Petersburg, 1880). Of more value, however, is Noldeke's Mandaitic Grammar, although it stands in connexion with the Babylonian Talmud only in an indirect way. (c) Commentaries.—Commentaries on the greater por-tion of the Babylonian Talmud are extant, by the famous Rabbenu Hananeel of Kairwan, the teacher of RIPH (q.v.), by RASHI (q.v.), and by the descendants and disciples of this latter commentator, who composed the Tosaphoth. All these are included in the latest Talmud edition of Vilna. It is asserted by RABAD II. (q.v.) that the whole (B.) Talmud had been commented on in Arabic. As regards the commentaries on the Palestinian Talmud, it ought to be said that the Pene Moslieh, &c, by R. Mosheh Margaliyyoth, and the Korban Hdedah, &c, by R. David Frankel (the teacher of Mendelssohn), make more than one commentary on the whole, and they are embodied in the Zhitomir edition (1860-67). (d) Methodology.—Among the many Introductions to the Babylonian Talmud that of R. Shemuel Hannagid must now be considered the first, not only in time but also in value. There was indeed an earlier, and perhaps a still more valuable one in existence (see SAADIA), but it is now unfortunately lost. As regards the Palestinian Talmud, the only one in existence is that by the late Z. Frankel (Breslau, 1870, 8vo). The author was a most learned man, but somewhat confused in his diction, (e) Translations.—Renderings of isolated treatises of the Babylonian Talmud exist in Latin, Ugolini, Thesaurus, xix., Zebahim and Menahoth, and xxv., Synhedrin;1 in French, e.g., Berakhoth, by Chiarini (Leipsie, 1831,
8vo) ; and in German, e.g., Berakhoth, by Rabe (Halle, 1777, 4to), regard being had also in both to the same treatise of the Palestinian recension, and again by Pinner (1842) ; Baba Mesi'a, by Sammter (1876), both at Berlin and in folio; 'Abodah Zarah, by Ewald (Nuremberg, 1856, 8vo) ; Tdanith, by Straschun (Halle, 1883) ; Megillah and Bosh Hasshanah, by Rawicz (Frankfort-on-the Main, 1884 and 1886). The assertion that the whole of this Talmud has been translated into Spanish has yet to be proved. As regards the Palestinian Talmud, Ugolini's Thesaurus contains the following treatises in Latin :—Pesahim (vol. xvii.); Shekalim, Yoma, Sukkah, Bosh Hasshanah, Tdanith, Megillah, Hagigah, Besah, Mded Katan (vol. xviii.); Ma'aseroth, Mdaser Sheni, Hallah, 'Orlah, Bikkurim (vol. xx.); Synhedrin, Makkoth (vol. xxv.); Kiddushin, Sotah, Kcthuboth (vol. xxx. ). M. Schwab (of the Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris) has undertaken a French translation of the entire Palestinian Talmud, which is now in progress ; from this Berakhoth has been translated into English (London, 1886, 4to).
Editions.—The editions of the Palestinian Talmud, in what was then called its entirety, are only four:—(a) Venice, 1523, without any commentary; (6) Cracow, 1609, with a short commentary, the text apparently from a different MS. from that used for the editio princeps; (c) Krotoschin, 1866, with a short commentary differing from that of Cracow : these three editions are each comprised in one volume; (d) the fourth edition came out at Zhitomir, with commentaries by different men (see Commentaries above). All these editions are in folio. Of the editions of isolated treatises, which are not a few, we will only mention those of Berakhoth (Vienna, 1874) and Peah and Demai (Breslau, 1875, both in 4to), with a new com-mentary by Z. Frankel. The editions of the Babylonian Talmud are so numerous that they would require several entire sheets for enumeration. There is in existence an approximately good treatise on them (see Variée Leetiones, vols. i. and viii.). We will only name three of the entire editions :—(1) the editio princeps, Venice, 1520-23, —which, though disfigured by numerous misprints, was not mutilated by the censor; (2) the edition of Basel (1578-81), which omits 'Abodah Zarah altogether, and has a cheering (?) notice in Latin ; (3) the latest edition, now printing at Vilna, with old commentaries hitherto unpublished. Of isolated treatises, which may be counted by more than hundreds, we will only mention one (the Portuguese of at least Berakhoth), the existence of wdiich was asserted in the last century (Pahad Yishak, s.v. SmnnD3 X333), then again called in question in our own times, but positively proved by the present writer from an early w-ork composed at the time when but few editions of the Talmud existed. It is the Zerd Abraham (Camb. MS. Ti. 6. 50, leaf 596). Materials for the critical edition of the Babylonian Talmud from an ancient MS. formerly in the monastery of Pfersee, but now in the Royal Library of Munich, and other MSS. and early prints of isolated treatises in various public and private libraries of Europe, Asia, and Africa, have been collected and are being published by Rabbinovicz. Of this important work fifteen volumes, containing the following treatises, havo already come out:—the whole Seder Zerdim (1867); Besah, Hagigah, Mo ed Katan (1869); Sukkah, Tdanith (1870); Bosh Hasshanah, Yoma '(1871) ; 'Erubin (1873); Pesahim (1874) ; Shabbath (1875); Megillah, Shekalim (1877); Synhedrin (1878); 'Abodah Zarah, Makkoth, Shebu'oth, Horayoth, 'Eduvyoth (1879) ; Baba Bathra (1881) ; Baba Kamma (1882) ; Baba Mesi'a (1883) ; Zebahim (1884) ; Menahoth (1886). All these were printed in 8vo and at Munich, except vol. ix., which came out at Mainz.
Upon examination these books turn out to contain either a transla-tion only of Mishnic treatises with or without excerpta from, and with or without scholia on, Gemara, or disputations which introduce small pieces of Gemara. The utmost they contain is a chapter or two translated from Gemara itself (as, for example, " Edzard, Aboda Sara, " &c, Hamburg, 1705-10, 4to, which contains Gemara of the first two Perakim).
Influence of the Talmud.—It must be admitted by every critical student of history that the Talmud has not merely been the means of keeping alive the religious idea among the Jews, but has formed their strongest bond of union. When, after the fall of the city of Jerusalem and its temple, and the expatriation of the Jews from Palestine, a goodly portion of the Mosaic law lost its application, the Talmud became the spirit which put fresh life into the letter which had become to a great extent dead. Moreover, by the Talmud, the interpretation of which was chiefly in the hands of the academies of Sura and Pumbaditha, the Jews of all the world found, if not a new Jerusalem, at least a new Yabneh (Jamnia), i.e., a place where the old learning was not merely continued, bat made to shine with a yet greater splendour. This fact will be the more readily acknow-ledged and appreciated when one casts a glance at the miserable religious condition of the Karaites, the so-called Scriptural Jews.
Transference of Talmudic Learning from the East to the West.—There naturally came a time when Talmudic learning, if it was to maintain its influence upon the Jews, could not be confined to one spot. We have seen under RASHI (q.v.) that the great emperor of the West (Charle-magne) had been the means, towards the close of the 8th century, of bringing learned Talmudists not only to Pro-vence bat to the north of France and the south of Ger-many. But when nearly two hundred years later the academies of Babylonia were threatened with extinction (because of their lacking, from various causes, the means of subsistence), so that they had to send out members of their body to supplicate the support of their richer brethren in other countries, it providentially happened that the four men whom they sent were taken by a Spanish corsair admiral and sold in four different slave-markets. Babbi Shemaryah was sold at Alexandria, and was redeemed by the Jews, and great was their astonishment when they recog-nized in him a most able Talmudist. He became the head of the Cairo community, and one of the most successful Jewish Talmud teachers Egypt ever had. Babbi Husshiel was taken to Kairwan, in Africa. There the Jews redeemed him; and when his great learning was found out he was named the spiritual head of the Jews in that place. From the school which he founded sprang not merely his own son, the famous Rabbenu Hananeel, but also the great Rabbenu Nissim, both teachers of RIPH (q.v.). Another learned cap-tive, R. Mosheh, was brought to the slave-market of Cor-dova, the rabbi of which town, a noble and rare example of unselfishness, modesty, and love of truth, placed the ragged stranger who had only been ransomed for charity's sake a day or so before at the head of the community instead of himself. The name of the fourth is unknown (see RABAD II., and Yohasin, ed. Cracow, leaf 1256). Some assert that he was R. Nathan Habbabli, and that he became the teacher of the Jews in Narbonne, but this is a mere conjecture, the truth of which has yet to be proved (see page 37, footnote "). Be this, however, as it may, four great Talmudists, who had come direct from the Babylonian academies, became the means of bringing Babylonico-Tal-mudic learning to places the Jews of which had been de-pendent on the religious and literary crumbs that fell from the richly-laden tables of Sura and Pumbaditha. Some years afterwards the former academy was closed, and a short time afterwards the same fate befell that of Pumba-ditha, the sunset of which, if not the noonlight, in the persons of Bab Sherira Gaon and his son Bab Hai Gaon was even more glorious than that of the sister academy, the last " gaon" of which was Bab Shemuel b. Hophni, father-in-law of Babbenu Hai. Meanwhile, however, Tal-mudic learning had not merely become naturalized, but eventually indigenous in various parts of Africa, and part of Europe (Spain, Italy, Provence, the south of Germany, and the north of France). Babbenu Gershom b. Yehudah of Metz and his disciple Babbenu Yishak of Troyes, Rabbenu Ya'akob b. Yakar of Worms, Rabbenu Eli'ezer Haggadol and his disciple and successor Rabbenu Yishak Segan Leviyyah, Rabbenu Yishak b. Yehudah of Mainz,
Rabbenu Elyakim of Spires, Rabbenu Nathan b. Yehiel
of Rome, and last but not least Rashi himself, and his
sons-in-law and other disciples, represented Talmudic learn-
ing in such perfection as had not been found before as
regards the Babylonian Talmud, even in the land of its
birth and growth. It was the disciples' disciples of these
men who studied and taught in various towns of England
within a hundred years (1150) after the Conquest. When,
towards the end of the 13th century and the commence-
ment of the 14th, the Jews were driven out of England
(1290) and France (1306), and flocked chiefly to Italy,
Greece, Germany, and Poland, the last-named country
appropriated the lion's share of Talmudic learning, so
that till within our own century the rabbis of the chief
communities in Hungary, Moravia, Bohemia, and other
Austrian states, and in Germany, Holland, England, &c,
had to be fetched from Poland. Talmudic learning, since
Mendelssohn and his school arose, threatened to die out
net merely among the Jews in Germany, but also among
those of the other countries where the Jews spoke the
German tongue in some form or other. Within the last
twenty-five years, however, fresh impulse has been given
to these studies, not merely among Jews but also among
Christians. (s. M. s.-s.)
Footnotes
5 See T. B., Baba Kamma, leaf 1046, WDKp 1107n E» (" I say
this is a plain [Mosaic] teaching "). ,
Compare Mishnah, Peah, i. 1, D73 "13.33 min 110^1 (" and the studying of the Law balances them all") ; Aboth, iv. 13, ITIT
(" be circumspect as regards instruction").
See Perek Rabbi Meir, 6, 1110^2 13? D^D fcÓl ("whose heart is not arrogant on account of his learning") ; cf. T. B., Pesahim, leaf 49a ;
130D ronton nioSm ("his learning becomes forgotten by him").
See T. B., Synhedrin, leaf 24a, 733 7E> miD7n ("themodeof study prevalent in Babylonia"); comp. T. B., Pesahim, 345, whiz ID^nOT KnnyíOC ¡innDN KDÏKTn Kjn&O UnH Dlfc^D
(" foolish Babylonians, who, because ye dwell in a land of darkness, say sayings that are obscure"), and T. B., Baba Mesia, leaf 85a; Rabbi Zera fasted a hundred fasts on going up to Palestine, so that he might forget the style of Babylonico-Talmudic study fcOOJ or
that it should not trouble him any further. Rashi takes the quotation fromjBa&a Mesi'a to signify the concrete Babylonian Talmud, which, however, is impossible.
See T. B., Kiddushin, leaf 405: "Is theory (11D7n) greater or
practice (flOTD) greater? . . . They all answered, Theory OÍD1?) is greater because it leads to practice." Talmud, as will have been seen, is here given as synonymous with Limmud. ,
See T. B., Baba Bathra, leaf 1305, catchword pD7 pK, and Variai Lectiones in loco.
See T. B., Baba Bathra, leaf 1305, catchword pD7 pK, and Variai Lectiones in loco.
See T. B., Baba Mesia, leaf 336, and compare Rashi in loco.
The rector of this academy was Shemuel, court physician of Shapur I., and astronomer. Whilst his friend and fellow-pupil RAB (q.v.; they both attended the lectures of the principal editor of the Mish-nah) excelled in the other parts of the Jewish law, Shemuel was pre-eminent in the civil law. On account of this he is repeatedly called in the Talmud both "Shapur" (like his master) and " Aryokh" (lion, king, teacher). To him is due the legal principle that " the law of
The rector of this school was Rab Hisda, the father-in-law of RABA (q.v.).
The rector of this school was RABA (q.v.).
The rector of this school was Rab Mahinan b. Yishak (T. B., Gittin, 316, Rashi, catchword &OX), husband of the learned and accomplished Yaltha, the daughter of the resh galutha (T. B., Hullin, leaf 1096), &c.
Amora may also mean an interpreter. The great teachers of the first five centuries had generally a man (or several men) at their side, who to the learning requisite to translate the master's teaching given in Hebrew, and dilate on it in Aramaic, added a Stentor's voice, and could by fascinating speech command the attention of the audience. The first Babylonian Amora, i.e., explainer of the Mishnah, who had an Amora, i.e., a popular teacher, was Rabbi Shila. The first who is known to have acted as Amora, i.e., popular teacher, to an Amora, i.e., an explainer of the Mishnah, was the famous RAB (q.v.). See T. Y, Berakhoth, iv. 1, 2, &c.; T. B., Berakhoth, leaf 275 ; and T. B., Yoma, leaf 206 (against Rapoport, ' Erekh Millin, s.v. " Amora").
The Palestinian Amoraim, teaching people who understood Greek, had not to explain the Greek terms which frequently occur in the Mish-nah and other works kindred to it. The Babylonian Amoraim, how-ever, who in common with their hearers were ignorant of Greek, had a somewhat irregular though certainly effective way (received by them traditionally) of explaining the Greek terms in the Mishnah, &c, by Aramaic etymology. We will give two instances only of this practice: —(1) ''pTllSX, which is evidently the Greek WOBT)KI), is explained
The Palestinian Amoraim, teaching people who understood Greek, had not to explain the Greek terms which frequently occur in the Mish-nah and other works kindred to it. The Babylonian Amoraim, how-ever, who in common with their hearers were ignorant of Greek, had a somewhat irregular though certainly effective way (received by them traditionally) of explaining the Greek terms in the Mishnah, &c, by Aramaic etymology. We will give two instances only of this practice: —(1) ''pTllSX, which is evidently the Greek WOBT)KI), is explained
T. B., Baba Mesi'a, leaf 665, 110 K7tf jlJTIB "]7 K!"P X7, "thou shalt get no payment except from this,"—evidently = 'Kp Xiin HSK = "upon this thou shalt stand," i.e., "if I do not pay, this shall serve as my security"; compare Rashi on Baba Kamma, 116, catchword 'p'niQN; (2) is evidently the Greek SiaBfaii, and is ex-
plained as being a compound of (D'p) Dp »D7 Knn til, " this shall
stand when I am no more," i.e., "this is my last will and testa-ment." From T. B., Baba Bathra, leaf 1355 (evidently a Babylonian
Boroitho), we see that in T. B., Baba Mesi'a, leaf 19a, three words ) have fallen out. 7 Compare p. 35, footnote 3.
8 Bibliographers generally fall into a mistake in describing the size of the Babylonian as twelve times that of the Palestinian Talmud. They forget that two-thirds of the size of the former is simply owing to the commentaries by which it is invariably accompanied.
9 The only thing that ought to be mentioned here is, that to the
Palestinian Talmud the Sheba' Massekhtoth Ketannoth Yerushalmiyyoth
(Frankfort, 1851, 8vo) must be added, whilst Gemara Shekalim and
the Massekhtoth Ketannoth, which now form an integral part of the
Babylonian Talmud, are (Aboth de-Rabbi Nathan excepted) unjusti-
fiably attached to it. 10 See Rashi on Gen. xlvii. 2.
3 Baynmndus Martin (Ramon Martinez), backed up by his teacher Pablo Cristiani (see RAMBAN), was one of the first five (or rather six) mutilators (called censors) of the Talmud and kindred books. See Touron, Ilistoire des Hommes Illustres de VOrdre de Saint Dominique, i. (Paris, 1743, 4to) p. 492 ; Jour. Philol., xvi. 134.
4 In the midsummer of 1244 twenty-four waggons full of Talmud copies were burned in France (see Journal of Philology, xvi. 133). A certain Donin (afterwards called Nicolaus), a converted Jew, by his accusations against the Talmud, managed that Rabbi Yehiel of Paris had to dispute with him publicly about its contents. The disputation took place in the midsummer of 1240; and R. Yehiel came out of it so victoriously that only after four years' further machinations the Talmud was actually burned. The disputation is printed under the name of Disputatio cum Nicolao A. 1252 (!) habita cum Versione Latina in Wagenseil's Tela Ignea Satanee (Altdorf, 1681, 4to); a less incorrect Hebrew edition came out in 1873, 8vo, at Thorn. This event of burning the Talmud called forth three.elegies—(1) by R. Binyamin b. Abraham De' Mansi, beginning D?W )"I13N, and the refrain of which was HISBD DD3n 'K, KIDJl T\WO <K (see MS. Add. 374, Camb. Univ. Lib., leaves 307a-308a); (2) by R. Meir of Rotheuburg (see ROSH), the beginning of which is K'K3 HD'nK'
(in the Ashkenazic ritual for the 9th of Ab); and (3) by R. Abraham b. Yishak (see Zunz, Zur Gesch. u. Lit., pp. 463-4). This Abraham b. Yishak is the father of the famous En-bonet Abram Bederesi (not Bedarshi; see Schiller-Szinessy, Catal., i. correction 5), the author of the Behinath 'Olarn.
E.g., T. B., Berakhoth, leaf 36a. See Rashi and Tosaphoth, catchword KHD^ni ; Ibid., 366, and in other places.
In his Introduction to the commentary on the Mishnah (commonly,
E.g., T. B., Berakhoth, leaf 36a. See Rashi and Tosaphoth, catchword KHD^ni ; Ibid., 366, and in other places.
but by mistake, called Introduction to the Seder Zer'aim) and in his
Introduction to the Mishneh Torah.
See Schiller-Szinessy in the Academy, 1878, p. 171, and extract from Excursus iii. (to the Catalogue) on the Palestinian Talmud in Occasional Notices, &c, i., Cambridge, 1878, 8vo.
See the before-mentioned Occasional Notices.
Rabbenu Nathan b. Yehiel b. Abraham was, on his father's side an 'Anav (MV)—and not an 'Akko (13J?) as Rapoport, no doubt alter Ibn Yahya, writes it in Bikkure Hdittim, x. 7—i.e., of the family Anavim (Dei Mansi, Dei Mansueti, Dei Piatelli, Dei Pietosi, Dei
Umani, Dei Umili), and, on his mother's side, of the Tappuhim, i.e., De Pomis, to which the celebrated author of the Lexicon Semah David belonged. Rabbenu Nathan's father and grandfather, like Rabbenu Nathan himself and his brother's descendants, were, no doubt, papal court Jews (and not linendrapers, as the latest editor of the'Arukh, by misreading and misinterpreting the somewhat hard verses of his author, contrives to show). This lucrative position furnished them with ample means not only for their noble charities to congregational insti-tutions (a synagogue, religious bath, &c.), but also with the leisure necessary for the pursuit of Talmudic studies. Rabbenu Nathan was resh kallah (rector of the Jewish university), and unquestionably the greatest Talmudist, even as he was the poorest Hebrew poet, in Italy in the 11th and 12th centuries. As regards his teachers we know four, three of whom he attended, whilst he studied and digested the works of the fourth so well that, though personally unknown to one another, they may be justly called master and disciple. His first teacher was his own father; his second teacher, from whom Rabbenu Nathan no doubt obtained his thorough knowledge of Babylonian habits, was R. Masliah of Sicily, who had been a hearer of the greatest "gaon" of Pumbaditha; his third teacher was R. Mosheh b. Ya'akobb. Mosheh b. Abbun of Narbonne (or Toulouse ; better known under the name of R. Mosheh Haddarshan); and the fourth was Rabbenu Han-aneel of Kairwan. He owed so much to this teacher that as soon as the 'Arukh had appeared most people took it for granted that Rabbenu Hananeel had lived at Rome, and accordingly called him "a man of Rome—'Ish Romi"; see MS. Brit. Mus. Add. 27,201, leaf 736, and Tosaphoth, passim. (That Rabbenu Gershom, Rabbenu Mosheh 'D1S3, and others were his teachers, as Rapoport, loc. cit., asserts, is a fic-tion.) Rabbenu Nathan, in his 'Arukh, does not merely explain the foreign (i.e., Aramaic, Persian, Greek, Latin, and Arabic) words occur-ring in the Targums, Talmuds, and Midrashim, but the subject-matter also, and thereby proves himself a doubly useful guide. In this, al-though he had been preceded by no less a personage than the Gaon Semah b. Paltoi (fl. 870), who also composed such an 'Arukh, Rabbenu Nathan was virtually the first, as the Goon's work had been early lost. The assertion that the fourth of the four men captured by the Spanish admiral (see below, p. 39) was R. Nathan Habbabli, that he lived in Narbonne, and that he also composed a similar 'Arukh, rests on a misunderstanding, as the quotation in the Yohasin clearly shows. The passages there given under R. Nathan Habbabli are taken verbatim from the 'Arukh of our author (compare the article EJ'JK', &c). That Rome has been at times called in Jewish writings " Babel," and that consequently Habbabli may mean "the Roman," is clear from the writings of the New Testament. We will only add here a few words concerning the bibliography of the book. Of the 'Arukh exist so far ten editions, the first of which came out undated, but before or about 1480. The seventh edition was enriched by the physician R. Binyamin Musaphia's Musaph, i.e., Additamenta (Musaphia was a Greek and Latin scholar), and the latest edition by Dr Kohut is now in progress. As regards the MSS. of this remarkable lexicon the best copies are to be found partly in the University Library, Cambridge (Add. 376, which has all the verses of the author and additamenta by R. Shemuel Ibn J?D3, and Add. 471-72), and partly at the Court Library, Vienna (Cod. cvi. 1 and 2). The latter were carried off by Napoleon I. to Paris in 1809, but in 1815 were returned to Vienna.
Upon examination these books turn out to contain either a transla-tion only of Mishnic treatises with or without excerpta from, and with or without scholia on, Gemara, or disputations which introduce small pieces of Gemara. The utmost they contain is a chapter or two translated from Gemara itself (as, for example, " Edzard, Aboda Sara, " &c, Hamburg, 1705-10, 4to, which contains Gemara of the first two Perakim).
The paging of this has been followed in all subsequent editions.
Nunc ab omnibus iis quae contra religionem Christianam facie-bant recognitum, et juxta mentem Sacri concilii Tridentini expurga-tum et approbatum, ut non modo citra impietatem verum etiam cum fructu a nostris legi possit.
The notes in the first fourteen volumes go under the name of DHSID """Dl, whilst those of the fifteenth volume have the title of Dn~ÛK ]1"Ût, in memory of the late Abraham Merzbacher, who not merely proved the Maecenas of this publication during his lifetime, but left a considerable sum for its continuation and completion.
Italy, notably Sicily, was apparently the country which obtained
See Schiller-Szinessy, Catalogue, ii. p. 88. 6 See art. RASHI (vol. xx. p. 284, note 10).
8 See Seplier Hdyyashar, § 620 (leaf 74a, col. 2).
11 See Seplier Hayyashar, § 604.
See MS. Add.. 27,200 in the Br. Mus., leaf 1586.
See Rashi's Siddur, i. leaf 16.
This rabbi was a disciple of R. Shemuel Hallevi (see Schiller-Szinessy, Catal., ii. p. 65, note 1) and of Rashi, and was not only a great Talmudist, as were all the disciples of the last-named eminent teacher, but also a great mathematician and astronomer, though a terribly bad poet. His commentary on Abolh is in part printed, and is to be found, more or less perfect, in various libraries in Europe, although not recognized as his. It is ascribed variously to Rashi, to Rashbam, and others. There are copies of it in Cambridge (Add. 1213; Add. 1523), Oxford (Opp. 317), the British Museum (Add. 27201), the Beth Hammidrash of the Ashkenazim in London, &c. (The master of St John's, Cambridge, is preparing an edition of it.) A work on intercalation by Rabbenu Ya'akob b. Shimshon exists in MS. at the Bodleian (Opp. 317) under the name of Seplier Haelkoshi. From him, no doubt, Rabbenu Tham imbibed his love for science. On the fact that Rabbenu Ya'akob b. Shimshon was Rabbenu Tham's teacher (against Zunz), see Schiller-Szinessy, Catal., ii. p. 66, note.
This rabbi was a disciple of R. Shemuel Hallevi (see Schiller-Szinessy, Catal., ii. p. 65, note 1) and of Rashi, and was not only a great Talmudist, as were all the disciples of the last-named eminent teacher, but also a great mathematician and astronomer, though a terribly bad poet. His commentary on Abolh is in part printed, and is to be found, more or less perfect, in various libraries in Europe, although not recognized as his. It is ascribed variously to Rashi, to Rashbam, and others. There are copies of it in Cambridge (Add. 1213; Add. 1523), Oxford (Opp. 317), the British Museum (Add. 27201), the Beth Hammidrash of the Ashkenazim in London, &c. (The master of St John's, Cambridge, is preparing an edition of it.) A work on intercalation by Rabbenu Ya'akob b. Shimshon exists in MS. at the Bodleian (Opp. 317) under the name of Seplier Haelkoshi. From him, no doubt, Rabbenu Tham imbibed his love for science. On the fact that Rabbenu Ya'akob b. Shimshon was Rabbenu Tham's teacher (against Zunz), see Schiller-Szinessy, Catal., ii. p. 66, note.
Rabbenu Tham, dying an old man, must have been from fourteen to sixteen years of age when Rashi died.
See Camb. MS. Add. 667, 1, leaf 646, col. 1.
See Brit. Mus. MS. Add. 27200, leaf 1585.
See ShMole llalleket (ed. Buber), p. 10.